What does encoding failure refer to?

Encoding failure refers to the situation where information does not effectively move from short-term memory to long-term memory during the encoding process. This means that the memory was never created in the first place because the information was not properly processed or absorbed. Factors such as distraction, lack of attention, or insufficient depth of processing can contribute to encoding failure, leading to the absence of a memory trace that could be recalled later.

In contrast, the other options suggest different phenomena related to memory but do not accurately capture the essence of encoding failure. For instance, repression involves the unconscious blocking of memories, which is different from the initial failure to encode them. Forgetting generally implies that a memory was once formed but later lost or inaccessible, while altering a memory suggests that the original memory was created but subsequently changed or distorted. Therefore, the concept of encoding failure specifically emphasizes that a memory was never established due to inadequate processing during the initial stages of memory formation.